I continue the topic about personnel errors from the point of view of simulators (simulators) for training specialists. Since so far many educators do not see a significant difference between tests and simulators, I will try to show, so to speak, the "depths of depth" of this problem.
To begin with, the classification of an error depending on its "position" in the personnel activity process is also widely represented in many models of the personnel activity process. As a rule, such models are also highly dependent on the scope of application, i.e. industry.
Human operator in a feedback system
Next, we will consider one of the most modern universal models based on and shown in the figure. The choice of this model is due to the smallest division of cognitive and physical actions. This model does not contradict other models, and is, as it were, their generalization.
An example of a personnel activity process (behavior model)
An error due to the “human factor” actually means an error at one or several stages of the personnel activity process. Therefore, to reduce the likelihood of risk caused by a human factor, it is necessary to reduce the number of errors at each of the stages presented. The stages are understood as the sequence in the labor process, as part of the production process - a combination of the actual labor activity and associated mechanical, physical-chemical and other processes under the control of a specialist. The labor process, in turn, is divided into operations, techniques, actions, labor movements.
Let's take a closer look at detection, diagnostics and decision making.
Detection
Knowledge, skills and abilities of detection are directly related to a separate category of errors - errors of perception (including errors of attention). This type of error usually differs in:
- Perception errors - did not have time to detect, could not distinguish, did not recognize, interpreted incorrectly (subject to knowledge of the signs of a dangerous situation, permissible deviations, etc.);
- Attention - I could not concentrate, get myself together, switch, hold, did not have time to cover everything, quickly got tired;
- Lack of knowledge and / or experience with regard to signs of a hazardous situation, tolerances, inspection and control periods, etc.
Currently, there are statistics that clearly demonstrate the different types of human detection errors for different areas, for example:
- M.A. Kotik, A.M. Emelyanov - The nature of human operator errors on examples of driving vehicles.
- Paul Fitts Engineering Psychology and Machine Design In: Experimental Psychology (S. Stevens, ed.), Vol. 2, p. 943.
- Strelkov Yu. K. Engineering and professional psychology. M .: Academy, 2005.
If we single out errors associated with perception and attention from these statistics, we can cite the following data from numerous studies that require more careful study in the framework of the formation of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to detect using simulators. (since this affects the requirements for simulators)
Table. Classification of 270 errors made by pilots in response to signals and instrument readings. [from the book Strelkov Yu.K. Engineering and professional psychology]
Formation of knowledge of detection (control)
To form detection knowledge, the student must remember:
- what measuring devices should be "monitored", how to read the readings correctly, how often or with what frequency it is necessary to check changes in readings;
- existing hazardous areas and possible sources of danger associated with the presence of personnel or foreign objects in the hazardous area, smoke, etc .;
- characteristic spots on equipment requiring attention and regular visual inspection;
- characteristic changes in the sound of equipment operation or vibration (tactile sensations);
- location of alarm devices;
- other equipment and processes requiring increased supervision and attention
In other words, the formation of detection knowledge implies the memorization of the following information: what should be monitored, how and how often. For example, for a generator it is necessary to detect the following symptoms: Excessive heating of bearings - observation (reading of indications) of a thermometer; Leakage of grease from the bearing chambers - visual inspection; Machine vibration during operation - kinetic sensations and sound vibrations; Rhythmic hum in the car - sound vibrations; The generator windings overheat above the permissible norm - observation (reading of readings) of the thermometer, etc.
"Group preparation" is possible, when each member of the group is responsible only for his own "areas", but must control other members of the group.
The effectiveness of the formation of detection knowledge depends on:
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Evaluation of the effectiveness of the formation of detection knowledge can be done using testing, by comparing the detected changes with the total number of presented changes. For example, when a change in pressure is detected, the student presses a key, if the key has not been pressed, it is considered that the student did not notice this change.
Conclusion: Imitators are able to effectively form the necessary knowledge, because:
- They can reproduce almost all the signs of an accident (except temperature, humidity, etc.) or potentially dangerous situations, and the demonstration of all the signs of an accident on specific real equipment can be significantly difficult, and the real reproduction of potentially dangerous situations is extremely dangerous.
- Due to the use of all channels of perception, the percentage of memorizing information will be higher than traditional methods of forming knowledge (posters, videos).
Formation of detection (control) skills
The learner should be able to apply the acquired (or existing) knowledge of detection in practice (when solving specific problems). Without the formation of detection skills, the trainee, being in a real situation, will spend too much time and effort on detection, and will also be forced to temporarily be distracted from the work being performed. In other words, the constant concentration of mental effort on the detection process can interfere with other processes, and can also cause fatigue, decreased attention, etc.
Skill formation and detection is directly related to attention. In cognitive science, attention is understood as a control mechanism of action (internal control), and its formation is determined by learning and training. In the work [Boris Mitrofanovich Velichkovsky. COGNITIVE SCIENCE Fundamentals of the Psychology of Cognition Volume 1, 304 pp.] On the basis of numerous studies, it is indicated - “The formation of cognitive skills especially strongly increases the success of work in conditions of distraction. These results allow us to hope for overcoming many seemingly fixed limitations of cognitive processes with properly structured learning and training. "
Formation of detection skills in a trainee means the trainee's ability to make detection in practice without prolonged distraction from the main process (short switching between actions being performed). A simple example of skill formation is learning how to read a text "by syllables" or "by words" (and not "by letter").
As in the formation of discovery knowledge, "group preparation" is possible, when each member of the group is responsible only for his own "areas", but must control other members of the group.
The formation of detection skills is achieved by simple repetition of detection actions, together with the performance of the necessary work (working algorithms). A prerequisite is a long individual or group training, when each member of the group is responsible for their own "areas".
Particular attention should be paid to the following factors (based on their classification of errors [from the book Strelkov YK Engineering and Professional Psychology]):
- If there are devices, the arrow of which makes several revolutions, it is necessary to separately monitor the speed and accuracy of reading the readings of these devices.
- The accuracy and speed of interpretation of instruments showing the rate of change of a value - changing rapidly or slowly - and the direction of change - increasing or decreasing.
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Efficiency of formation of detection skills: see the efficiency of formation of knowledge of detection.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the formation of detection skills can be carried out similarly to testing the detection knowledge, with the difference that the student performs the necessary work on the simulator (working algorithm) and not only the fact of "noticing" changes is estimated, but also the time elapsed between changes (for example, pressure on pressure gauge) and the student's reaction. If the elapsed time is more than a certain value, the result of the "remark" is not counted (it is considered that the change was detected with a significant delay).
Thus, it is possible to conclude that imitators are able to effectively form the necessary skills, since they are able to provide all the conditions necessary for this (they also have a higher efficiency than posters and films). The possibility of long-term "individual" training of skills also increases the effectiveness of simulators.
Formation of skills of detection (control, reaction)
With the further development of attention with the help of learning and training, the automation of actions occurs and the process of coordination of “detection” is no longer determined by only conscious control - the formation of skills begins. To study the mechanism of skills formation, it is necessary to refer to the results of studies of physiological processes of perception, which are currently sufficiently studied.
The process of perceiving information begins with the physiological adjustment of the perception system to the object of observation (the level of unconditioned reflexes) and ends with the stage of conscious choice and processing of information at the level of thinking. The available data from the field of physiology of sensory systems and psychological studies of perception issues indicate that a person perceives information in the first place, using his dominant analyzers (vision, hearing and kinesthetic sensations). The dominant analyzer is vision, but in the process of perception (by the brain) of a visual image, not only vision is involved, but also other senses. As a rule, the overall response time is understood as the reaction time or duration. What we feel depends only 20% on the work of the dominant analyzers,and 80% is determined by the ability of the central nervous system to process the received information.
The dynamic capabilities of the visual system (improvement). As a rule, only static vision is controlled, however, in a rapidly changing situation, personnel largely depend on the dynamic capabilities of the visual system.
Testing and training the dynamic capabilities of the visual system is important for two main reasons:
1. Human vision is not able to perceive continuously and equally clearly across the entire field of vision. For a clear perception as a whole, a person must quickly fix his gaze in several important places.
2. We see the whole picture with a time delay of 0.15-0.2 seconds, in this connection, it is necessary to master the algorithms for guiding the gaze and to establish connections between visual perception and muscle reactions for the formation of subconscious anticipatory actions.
The recognition process can be conditionally divided into separate stages following each other. A certain amount of time is spent first for adding the received information into a single frame, and then for its subsequent analysis and interpretation. In the first 0.04 seconds after fixing the gaze, the person does not see anything (the brain adds a single frame), in the observation interval from 0.04 to 0.06 seconds, the contours (shape fragments) begin to be fixed, from 0.06 to 0.16 occurs coloring of the image, and from 0.16 to 0.2-0.3 sec a whole image is formed, or another fragment of a panoramic view, if the observed picture is a continuation of what was seen earlier. In the interval from 0.16 to 0.2-0.3 sec. the comparison with the images stored in memory ends and the maximum possible interpretation of what he saw occurs.
The brain processes the "raw" information received from the retina, broken into separate parts automatically, so that we practically do not notice it. In addition, the picture built by the brain looks much more complete if our eyes are in motion when the gaze scans the space (the central part of the gaze at this moment collects details about the hotel objects). This is exactly how the personnel should lead their eyes, sequentially scanning the "work" space. Taking short side glances at instrument locations, personnel locations and to assess the overall workplace situation. It is unacceptable to constantly look in one direction without moving your gaze (this is a very common mistake of staff).
As a rule, the development of the ability to correctly lead the gaze is compulsorily developed during the training of flight crews, athletes-drivers, etc.
When the movement of a moving object is monitored, first the eyes must catch it in focus, then the human brain calculates how far from us the object is and how fast it is moving, a forecast of its trajectory is made, after which a quick look is made to a new point, predicted in advance. This process takes about 0.15 seconds, at the moment of transferring the gaze, perception is lost, and for a moment the person “goes blind”, as if blinking. If between the forecasts of the visual system, for some reason, the object significantly changes its trajectory, then the forecasts for gaze guidance turn out to be erroneous, and the visual system is forced to spend additional time to restore perception (the object is again caught in focus, its new trajectory is calculated).
The available evidence from studies of perception issues leads to unambiguous conclusions:
- The perception of visual information is a mastered process, and is not given to us completely from birth. It is formed and improved in the process of accumulating life experience and certain training.
- People who have not mastered the correct algorithms to perceive a rapidly changing environment see much less detail, regardless of the visual acuity that they check with an optometrist.
- People who have mastered the algorithm for correct gaze guidance notice more features and details of the environment.
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Picture. Sequential illumination of indicators in the simulator to work out the algorithm for correct gaze guidance
Perception errors and information distortion
In most cases, the interpretation of information coming from dominant analyzers is correct, but sometimes perception errors occur. The most famous illusions are associated with vision, there are errors in the perception of tactile sensations, sound, etc. Visual illusions and phenomena [http://www.psy.msu.ru/illusion/]:
- Depth perception illusions
- Visual distortion
- Size perception illusions
- Illusions of color and contrast
- Aftereffect
- Illusions of movement (for example, visual illusions when it seems that your car begins to move backwards, at the moment when a nearby car slowly starts to move)
- The effect of perceptual readiness, etc.
Other limitations of the visual system (In low light, high light, changing exposure).
The resulting interconnections and conflicts between different sensory channels sometimes have a negative effect - brain fatigue, etc.). With the help of simulators, it is possible to reproduce most of the illusions and distortions, which means that it is possible to develop (form) the necessary mechanisms for the recognition of such cases and a more attentive attitude towards them in the trainees.
Moving from the visual system to hearing and tactile sensations, we can separately highlight:
- Tactile perception;
- Vibration sensitivity;
- Transfer of sensations through tissues;
- Perception through hearing, etc.
The figure shows the information received by the pilot during piloting.
Building detection skills
is achieved by repeating the detection actions, together with performing the necessary work (working algorithms). A prerequisite is a long individual or group training, when each member of the group is responsible for their own "areas". The main difference from the formation of skills is precisely the development and application of the correct mechanisms of the perception process (for example, the trajectory of eye movement when reading a number of indicators on the panel) and the automation of the actions performed upon detection.Detection skills formation efficiency: see detection knowledge and skills formation efficiency. In addition, it is possible to obtain information using a motion capture system (including the movement of the pupil) and assess the correctness of the student's actions.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the formation of detection skills can be carried out similarly to testing of detection skills.
Thus, it is possible to conclude that imitators are able to effectively form the necessary skills, since they are able to provide all the necessary conditions for this (they also have higher efficiency than posters and films), in addition, they provide significant advantages, such as demonstrating full-scale accidents, training under the influence of external distractions (rain, wind), etc.
The accuracy of the diagnostics depends on how effectively the detection is carried out (without effective training in detection, personnel may not notice the danger or notice it too late).
Diagnostics
In the process of diagnostics, decisions are made on the admissibility of the detected deviations of the parameters from the norm (expected) or their inadmissibility, followed by a transition to the decision-making stage to solve or compensate for a possible problem.
Accordingly, the following main errors are possible during diagnostics:
omission of a malfunction or a dangerous situation;
"false alarm".
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Formation of diagnostic knowledge Formation of diagnostic
knowledge is achieved by remembering all direct and indirect signs of malfunctions (or threats), any external manifestations of malfunctions (or threats), failure criteria and maximum permissible values or states, for example:
- Excess or decrease in pressure (temperature, flow, current) above the maximum permissible values;
- Leakage of grease, vibration, hum, whistle, abnormal sounds;
- Smoke, sparks;
- Signs of sound and light alarm actuation;
- Signs of safety valve actuation.
- Signs of damage or wear to rope, bearings, valves, etc.
- Signs of a threat (presence of personnel in the danger zone, etc.), etc.
The effectiveness of the formation of diagnostic knowledge depends on the quality of reproduction (demonstration) of primary and secondary signs of an accident or signs of a hazardous situation. Quality, in this case, should be understood as the difference in the perception of the signs of an accident (similarity) in the learning process and in a real situation. Also depends on the ability to implement "group training" if necessary.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the formation of diagnostic knowledge can be carried out using testing, by comparing the detected signs of malfunctions with the total number of malfunctions that have occurred. For example, when diagnosing a change in pressure above the maximum permissible value, the student presses a key, if the key was not pressed, it is considered that the student did not notice or did not consider it important (missing a malfunction or dangerous situation). If the key was pressed, and there was no malfunction or dangerous situation (all readings are normal), the "false alarm" error is recorded.
Output:
Simulators can be successfully used both for the formation of diagnostic knowledge (by demonstrating external manifestations and signs using all channels of perception), and for their verification of the correctness of diagnosis and its correction. The capabilities of simulators to "look inside the object" and other capabilities can greatly help in understanding information. Thus, simulators allow you to achieve the maximum level of memorization of information.
Formation of diagnostic skills
By analogy with the formation of detection skills, the student should be able to apply the acquired (or existing) knowledge of diagnostics in practical activities (when solving specific problems). As in the case of detection skills, without the formation of diagnostic skills, the trainee, being in a real situation, will spend too much time and effort on quick diagnostics, and will also be forced to temporarily be distracted from the work performed (fatigue, decreased attention and other effects are also possible) ...
The formation of the student's diagnostic skills means the student's ability to make diagnostics in practice without long distraction from the main process. As in the case of detection, the repetition of the diagnostic process (training) over time leads to the fact that, at first, the performance of a new action occurs at a high level and is fully realized, then it is split into a number of operations, which are gradually automated, finding lower , background levels. Based on this, for the formation of skills, long-term individual training and development of actions for diagnostics are required, necessarily in conjunction with the training of detection skills.
The formation of diagnostic skills is achieved by a simple repetition of diagnostic actions (together with detection), together with the implementation of the necessary work (working algorithms). A prerequisite is a long individual or group training, when each member of the group is responsible for their own "areas".
The effectiveness of the formation of diagnostic skills: see the effectiveness of the formation of diagnostic knowledge.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the formation of detection skills can be carried out similarly to testing diagnostic knowledge, with the difference that the student performs the necessary work on the simulator (working algorithm) and not only the fact of confirming the presence of faults or dangers is assessed, but also the time spent on this process by the student. If the elapsed time is more than a certain value, the result is not counted (it is considered that the malfunction or danger was not diagnosed or there was a significant delay).
As a rule, the following stages of the diagnostic process are distinguished:
- analysis of the situation;
- identification of all existing problems or potential threats, their ranking and selection of problems that pose the greatest potential danger;
- if there are signs of potential danger, it is necessary to assess the likely development of events, to determine the possible undesirable consequences.
- determining the reason due to which undesirable consequences occur or may occur;
Accordingly, the following main errors are possible:
- erroneous determination of possible consequences;
- erroneous determination of the reasons.
Thus, it is possible to conclude that simulators are able to effectively form the necessary diagnostic skills since able to provide all the conditions necessary for this:
- Implementation of all possible failures, accidents or incidents, together with the performance of the necessary work (algorithm);
- Identification of errors and their correction;
- The possibility of long-term individual or group training and other benefits.
Formation of diagnostic skills
With the further development of diagnostic skills with the help of long-term individual or group training, automation of actions occurs and the diagnosis process ceases to be determined by only conscious control - the formation of diagnostic skills begins. The formation of diagnostic skills reduces fatigue during work, absent-mindedness, and, accordingly, provides a greater concentration of attention on the process, a high reaction rate, etc.
The formation of diagnostic skills is achieved by repeating the actions for detection and diagnosis, together with the performance of the necessary work (working algorithms). A prerequisite is a long individual or group training, when each member of the group is responsible for their own "areas".
The effectiveness of the formation of diagnostic skills: see the effectiveness of the formation of diagnostic knowledge.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the formation of diagnostic skills can be carried out similarly to testing diagnostic skills.
Thus, it is possible to conclude that imitators are able to effectively form the necessary skills, since they are able to provide all the necessary conditions for this (they also have higher efficiency than posters and films), in addition, they provide significant advantages, such as demonstrating full-scale accidents, training under the influence of external distractions (rain, wind), etc.
The correctness of the decision depends on how effectively the diagnosis is carried out.
Making decisions
, , 90% - . , - . . : , , , . , . , . , 25—40% .
Properties and qualities of thinking:
- Independence - the ability to see a new problem, raise a new question, try to solve the problem on your own.
- Depth - the degree of penetration into the essence of the phenomenon.
- Latitude - the ability to control a large number of connections between objects, objects, phenomena while solving a problem.
- Flexibility - the ability to find different ways of solving problems, as well as to change the planned action plan if it does not satisfy the conditions that are found in the course of solving the problem.
- Criticality is the ability to correctly assess the objective conditions and one's own activities, if necessary, abandon the chosen solution, find a new way of acting.
- Speed is the ability to quickly find the right, informed decision.
The mechanism for generating and testing hypotheses, when all new signs of a situation are involved to refute or confirm assumptions about the cause of the event,
in this case, it is possible to turn to the search for an appropriate rule for implementing the solution (for example, if the pump is turned off, then remove the blockage and restart the pump)
or turn on the backup pump,
this is possible only with the involvement of fundamental knowledge about the structure of the process by setting and achieving several intermediate goals. that is, it consists in choosing the sequence of the necessary intermediate steps.
It strongly depends on the available experience. In fact, you need to remember the entire table of possible malfunctions (or threats) and ways to eliminate them, for example:
Name of a malfunction (or threat) external manifestation and additional signs (criteria for failures and limit states) - Drop in pressure and performance, vibration, noise [signs of the onset of cavitation]
Probable cause
- increase in pump flow above the nominal or increase in shaft rotation speed
- Increased resistance in the suction line (throttling at suction, clogged filters, etc.);
- decrease in pressure at the pump inlet due to technological reasons (decrease in the level in the feeding device);
- an increase in the temperature of the pumped product or an increase in the content of gases dissolved in it
Possible undesirable consequences - Destruction of the pump working parts due to cavitation
Actions upon detection - a) check ... b) report ... c) perform ...
Sequence:
- Formulation of the problem.
- Formulation of limitations and criteria for decision making.
- Identification of alternatives.
- Assessment of alternatives.
- Choosing an alternative.
- Solution implementation.
- Control over the execution of the decision.